Functional Elements of a Measuring Instrument – Static and Dynamic Characteristics – Standards and Calibration – Galvanometers: D’Arsonal and Vibration Galvanometer – Principle, Construction, Operation and Comparison of Moving Coil, Moving Iron Meters – Extension of Range and Calibration of Voltmeter and Ammeter, Digital voltmeters.

Electrodynamometer type Wattmeter - LPF wattmeter - Phantom loading - Induction type energy meter - Magnetic measurements - Determination of B-H curve and measurement of iron loss.

DC Potentiometer: Basic circuit, Standardization - Laboratory type (Crompton’s) – AC potentiometer - Drysdale (Polar) type - Gall-Tinsley (Coordinate) type - Limitations and applications – Instrument Transformer: CT and PT construction and operation.

Measurement of resistance: DC Bridges: Kelvin double bridge, Wheatstone bridge, Direct deflection method and Mega ohm Bridge method - Megger. Measurement of impedance: AC Bridges: Maxwell’s Bridge, Wein bridge, Schering bridge, Anderson bridge, Digital multimeter.

Magnetic disk and tape - Recorders, digital plotters and printers, CRT display, DSO, LED, LCD and dot matrix display – case study using design thinking - Data Logger and Function Generators.