Functional elements of an instrument – Static and dynamic characteristics – Errors in measurement – Statistical evaluation of measurement data – Standards and calibration- Principle and types of analog and digital voltmeters, ammeters.

Principle and types of multi meters – Single and three phase watt meters and energy meters – Magnetic measurements – Determination of B-H curve and measurements of iron loss – Instrument transformers – Instruments for measurement of frequency and phase.

D.C potentiometers, D.C (Wheat stone, Kelvin and Kelvin Double bridge) & A.C bridges (Maxwell, Anderson and Schering bridges), transformer ratio bridges, self-balancing bridges. Interference & screening – Multiple earth and earth loops – Electrostatic and electromagnetic Interference – Grounding techniques.

Magnetic disk and tape – Recorders, digital plotters and printers, CRT display, digital CRO, LED, LCD & Dot matrix display – Data Loggers.

Classification of transducers – Selection of transducers – Resistive, capacitive & inductive Transducers – Piezoelectric, Hall effect, optical and digital transducers – Elements of data acquisition system – Smart sensors-Thermal Imagers.